Explore Antarcticas Hidden Lake Vostok

One of the largest lakes on planet Earth is an extreme environment hidden beneath a thick glacier near the South Pole. Its called Lake Vostok, buried beneath nearly four kilometers of ice on Antarctica. This frigid environment has been hidden from sunlight and Earths atmosphere for millions of years. From that description, it sounds like the lake would be an icy trap devoid of life. Yet, despite its hidden location and terribly inhospitable environment, Lake Vostok teems with thousands of unique organisms. They range from tiny microbes to fungi and bacteria, making Lake Vostok a fascinating case study in how life survives in hostile temperatures and high pressure. Finding Lake Vostok The existence of this sub-glacial lake took the world by surprise. It was first found by an aerial photographer from Russia who noticed a large smooth impression near the South Pole in East Antarctica. Followup radar scans in the 1990s confirmed that something was buried under the ice. The newly discovered lake turned out to be quite large: 230 kilometers (143 miles long) and 50 km (31 miles) wide. From its surface to the bottom, it is 800 meters (2,600) feet deep, buried under miles of ice. Lake Vostok and Its Water There are no subterranean or sub-glacial rivers feeding Lake Vostok. Scientists have determined that its sole source of water is melted ice from the ice sheet that hides the lake. Theres also no way for its water to escape, making Vostok a breeding ground for underwater life. Advanced mapping of the lake, using remote sensing instruments, radar, and other geologic research tools, show that the lake sits on a ridge, which may be harboring heat in a hydrothermal vent system. That geothermal heat (generated by molten rock beneath the surface) and the pressure of the ice on top of the lake keep the water at a constant temperature. The Zoology of Lake Vostok When Russian scientists drilled cores of ice out from above the lake to study the gases and ices laid down during different periods of Earths climate, they brought samples of frozen lake water up for study. Thats when the life forms of Lake Vostok were first discovered. The fact that these organisms exist in the lake water, which, at -3 ° C, is somehow not frozen solid, raises questions about the environment in, around, and under the lake. How do these organisms survive in these temperatures? Why hasnt the lake frozen over? Scientists have now studied the lakes water for decades. In the 1990s, they began to find microbes there, along with other types of miniature life, including fungi (mushroom-type life), eukaryotes (the first organisms with true nuclei), and assorted multicellular life. Now, it appears that more than 3,500 species live in the lakes water, in its slushy surface, and in its frozen muddy bottom. Without sunlight, Lake Vostoks living community of organisms (called extremophiles, because they thrive in extreme conditions), rely on chemicals in rocks and heat from the geothermal systems to survive. This isnt terribly different from other such life forms found elsewhere on Earth. In fact, planetary scientists suspect that such organisms could thrive very easily in extreme conditions on icy worlds in the solar system. The DNA of Lake Vostoks Life Advanced DNA studies of the Vostokians indicate that these extremophiles are typical of both freshwater and saltwater environments and they somehow find a way to live in the cold waters. Interestingly, while the Vostok life forms are thriving on chemical food, they themselves are identical to bacteria that live inside of fish, lobsters, crabs, and some types of worms. So, while the Lake Vostok life forms may be isolated now, they are clearly connected to other forms of life on Earth. They also make a good population of organisms to study, as scientists ponder whether or not similar life exists elsewhere in the solar system, particularly in the oceans beneath the icy surface of Jupiters moon, Europa. Lake Vostok is named for Vostok Station, commemorating a Russian sloop used by Admiral Fabian von Bellingshausen, who sailed on voyages to discover Antartica. The word means east in Russian. Since its discovery, scientists have been surveying the under-ice landscape of the lake and the surrounding region. Two more lakes have been found, and that now raises the question about connections between these otherwise-hidden bodies of water. In addition, scientists are still debating the history of the lake, which appears to have formed at least 15 million years ago and was covered over by thick blankets of ice. The surface of Antarctica above the lake routinely experiences very cold weather, with temperatures dipping down to -89 ° C. The biology of the lake continues to be a major source of research, with scientists in the U.S., Russia, and Europe, studying the water and its organisms closely to understand their evolutionary and biological processes. Continued drilling poses a risk to the ecosystem of the lake since contaminants such as antifreeze will harm the organisms of the lake. Several alternatives are being examined, including hot-water drilling, which may be somewhat safer, but it  still poses a danger to lake life.

Hamlet and Macbeth Compared as Aristotelian Tragedies Essay

Aristotle’s Poetics is often considered the blueprint to a successful tragedy; his outline has been used for hundreds of years. Aristotle defines a tragedy as â€Å"an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude†¦ in the form of an action, not of narrative; through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions† (House 82). Aristotle believed that the most important part of a strong tragedy was the plot, and from that, the other elements such as character, diction, etc. would emerge. Aristotle states, â€Å"the principle of tragedy – the soul, if you like – is the plot, and second to that the characters† (Whalley 27). Shakespeare’s Macbeth and Hamlet essentially mirror this definition. While it is true†¦show more content†¦Hamlet tackles the tragedy within a family, but Macbeth is written as a tragedy that occurs between friends and associates. While extremely ambitious to be king , at the opening of the play Macbeth is a loyal servant to King Duncan of Scotland. However, upon hearing a prophecy from the three witches that predicts his rise to the throne, an insatiable sense of ambition to succeed and wield power overwhelms the good nature of Macbeth. Aristotle describes this part of tragedy as, â€Å"the action is human, the energy is human†¦ the action is plotted and prepared by the maker† (Whalley, 23). This is evident when Macbeth utters to himself, â€Å"Let not light see my black and deep desires† making known his intentions to murder the king (Macbeth I.iii.52-53). His action is a premeditated response and is aggravated by his all too human emotions, ambitions and greed. After the action element of the story, the character is the next central component in a successful Aristotelian tragedy. According to Aristotle, the character must be true to life and natural; a character is supposed to be a perfectly related to the audience while remaining believable enough to hold their role in a production (House, 91). Hamlet is a wealthy and privileged prince; however, he deals with the problems similar to most common people. He is confused, emotional, obsessive, and paranoid about the circumstances surrounding the death of his father the king. He lacks faithShow MoreRelatedEssay Death of a Salesman, Tragic Hero. Willy Loman.1503 Words   |  7 Pagesform of a tragedy. Aristotle has defined his idea of the ‘perfect’ tragedy in his text, ‘Poetics’ (350 BC).Here he suggests that the protagonist must fall from an elevated social standing as a result of a â€Å"fatal flaw† within the character; the fall from the main character create s resolution to the play which is seen as just; finally, Aristotle identified that the action of the drama should take place within a 24hour timeframe. An ancient play which is believed to be the perfect tragedy is OedipusRead MoreA Summary On Tragedy 2914 Words   |  12 Pagesday, ‘Is tragedy (still) possible?’ Be specific in your definitions, and illustrate your points with examples drawn from class material and anything else you may find helpful. The Foundations of a Tragedy For centuries the only definition of tragedy available to critics was found through Aristotle’s Poetics. Rarely were the ideas of Aristotle challenged and his explanation of a tragic work established the format of tragedy. Aristotle was never questioned and thus his explanation of tragedy stood for

Reasons Why the American Economy is in Recession Free Essays

string(167) " and is continuously hitting the American economy, it is worthy to identify and acknowledge the underlying reasons behind why the country’s economy is in recession\." The condition of the economy of the United States is significant to consider as it measures the worldwide financial system. Since it is now in recession, this paper will discuss the nature of the said financial crisis, causes and its implications to the country and its people. In order to recognize the damaging effects of recession, this paper ultimately aims to have a clear discussion of the reasons why the American economy is in recession. We will write a custom essay sample on Reasons Why the American Economy is in Recession or any similar topic only for you Order Now Reasons Why the American Economy is in Recession Introduction The current global financial crisis has traced its roots and is apparently attributed to the significant economic collapse of one of the world’s powerful and established economies, which is that of the United States. In fact, the American economy, which is considered to be as a very influential and stable financial system, has now been regarded as the turning point of worldwide recession or which signals the eventual economic downturn of other countries. This is because the American economy evidently spells the potential outcome as far as the economies of other nations. Hence, when the U. S. economy is down, economies around the world are expected to be dragged simply because of their seeming reliance to the economic or financial structure of the former. While the recession of American economy has been noticeable for the past years, the U. S. government just recently made it official. This is for the reason that the country has appeared to just only have submitted to the problem and accepted the fact that it now needs the support of other countries particularly those whose economies can now survive on their own and are not directly affected by the American economy recession. Now, the U. S. and a large part of the world are faced with the most terrible economic catastrophe since the renowned The Great Depression. Hence, it is empirically essential to determine and analyze the reasons behind why the economy of a dominant nation such as the U. S. is now feeling the heat and damaging implications of recession. American economists and concerned authorities have normally credited the recession to the apparent bungled decisions and activities made to manage the economy’s money supply. However, there is still a need to dig deeper and search for other causes of the recession in order to come up with a clear and comprehensive presentation and study of the said economic concern. This action is primarily aimed at providing the public with an understanding of the nature, grounds and harmful effects of recession to the American economy as well as that of other countries and most importantly, in order to ultimately resolve the issue and find ways to prevent it occurring again in the future. Recession of American Economy, an Overview According to Cush (2008), lead developer of the Recession site, recession in the economic field normally refers to a condition where a nation’s gross domestic product or GDP obviously maintains a negative development component in a span of approximately six months or around two successive quarters in minimum (Cush, 2008). Aside from the said general description, the authorized reviewer of downturns in the U. S. , which is called the National Bureau of Economic Research or NBER, characterizes recession as â€Å"a significant decline in economic activity spread across the economy, lasting more than a few months, normally visible in real GDP, real income, employment, industrial production and wholesale-retail sales† (â€Å"The American Economy,† 2008). Based from the above descriptions, it is significantly obvious that the existing American recession has likely met the criteria and that its harmful implications are already being manifested within the country’s financial system and are visibly felt by people. Since the NBER has officially affirmed that the economy is in a slump status, the government and many sectors specifically those which are gravely affected are now trying their best to appear less battered and emerge liberated when this economic condition is over. The economic condition of recession has afflicted the American economy since the eighteenth century. The various circumstances concerning the previous collapse in the economy included a disruption of trade and real estate markets, devastation of the shipping industry, crash of the banking system, unemployment, fall of the agricultural sector, slump in manufacturing, collapse of the stock market, monetary reduction, labor influx, inflation, tightening of monetary policy, oil price increase and even terrorist attacks. In particular, the current recession is caused by increasing oil costs which has resulted into escalating food prices and worldwide inflation, credit crisis which paved the way for bankruptcy and rising unemployment rate, all of which led to the growth of recession around the world (Cush, 2008). Additionally, the causes of recession are also a staunchly argued subject matter thus Cush further stated that its primary reason is, in fact, the actions which were carried out in an apparent attempt to rule and influence the supply of money in the American economy. This is where the obligations or functions of the Federal Reserve were questioned and blamed because the actions taken turned out to be the reasons why the economy crushed. Beside this, it was also traced that even when the economy manifests temporary occurrences such as unstable oil costs and armed conflict, these factors also contribute to the eventuality of recession (Cush, 2008). Beyond the history and causes of recession, its implication is maybe the most inflicting element and which is the ultimate concern of a country and its people. Cush explained that while GDP growth exists, the gasping symptoms of recession become more evident in various sectors and fields such as those which were previously experienced by the American economy in past recession incidents. Worst, when the financial system is continued to be exposed and hit by lasting recession, the condition eventually results into economic depression (Cush, 2008). Reasons behind the Recession In order to attain a better understanding of this financially-induced predicament which struck and is continuously hitting the American economy, it is worthy to identify and acknowledge the underlying reasons behind why the country’s economy is in recession. You read "Reasons Why the American Economy is in Recession" in category "Papers" To explain further the previously cited reason concerning the actions taken by the Federal Reserve apparently to manipulate the economy’s money supply, Cush made it clear that such factor was considered because it is the said financial entity which is in charge of keeping money supply and interest values stable while in a perfect balance with inflation (Cush, 2008). Cush further analyzed that when the Fed lost balance in this situation, the American economy was able to escape and compelled to rectify itself. This action was what specifically happened in 2007 when the Feds’ financial policy of bringing in remarkable supply of money into the market made the interest rates lesser even if inflation remained. However, when the said action is mixed with loosen financial policies such as in lending structures just to be able to alleviate the borrowing of money, the activities within the financial system were not uphold which paved the way for the economy to reach a freezing point (Cush, 2008). Meanwhile, Richebacher (2006) generally said that for the U. S. , the fast and sharp deterioration in the increase of consumer spending is the initial or even crucial factor which caused the looming and led to the eventuality severe American recession. In an effort to evaluate the said economic condition and additional development possibilities of the American economy, Richebacher said that the initial and significant detail to consider is that the economic recovery of the country since the latter part of 2001 has been regarded as the weakest so far in the entire postwar era. He added in particular that the inflation-adapted per hour and weekly compensations are evidently low nowadays as compared to the rate at the beginning of the economic resurgence in November of 2001 (Richebacher, 2006). Secondly, even if there is an inflation adjustment, the medium household earning plunged for the past five years and was even four percent less in 2004 as compared during 1999. Next is that the overall employment rate since the first quarter of 2001 is apparently up by 1. 9 percent while jobs in the private sector was placed at 1. percent. Ironically, while more jobs became more available, the unemployment rate turned out to be short for the primary reason that a significant number of Americans have yielded searching for their respective works (Richebacher, 2006). Additional and seemingly factors may also be considered as grounds which caused the American economic recession. These include the fact that employment growth has suddenly dropped for the past months specifically from 200, 000 jobs in the early part of the year to only 75,000 jobs in the middle period. Another reason is that the employment increase is only felt or seen coming from the spurious businesses and which tried to suggest that there is a growth within small and new companies which were not taken in the payroll appraisal yet the truth is there is a slump among existing industries and organizations. Lastly, indebtedness in the private households rose by 70 percent which was coupled by a general improvement in actual not reusable individual income by 12 percent (Richebacher, 2006). Rise in Consumer Spending An awfully distorted GDP account which apparently showed an increase in American consumer spending of a record high of 5. 2 percent years ago was, in fact, only placed at 1. 3 percent. This is because people just confidently settled and focused on the bigger consumer spending rate without realizing that it should really be in a yearly figure hence a smaller rate. To be more specific, Richebacher revealed that the horrible reality about the sudden increase in consumer spending, which was manifested in the past years, has truly and efficiently damaged. However, Richebacher also noted the significant and abrupt weakening of consumer spending which he regarded as the decisive factor thus a serious American recession is now happening. With this, he commented that the strength of consumer spending in the coming years is reliant to the prospects of maximum cash-out credit refinancing as compared with increasing housing costs. Sadly, one does not need to be smart just to realize that what Richebacher said is absolutely impractical and unattainable nowadays and considering the current recession that the American economy is experiencing (Richebacher, 2006). Accelerating Credit Expansion Richebacher stated that by analyzing the rush in credit expansion, it is now suspected that the slowing down of American economy has something to do or related with the actions made by the Feds such as the rate hikes. In short, regardless of the decisions made by the Feds, the fact remains that the existing credit expansion remains to accelerate. This is where the economy is affected because the more credit expands it then results into less activity within the financial system if it has to be gauged by GDP (Richebacher, 2006). The nation failed to recognize and realize that an economy which is motivated by frenzy-based housing system, in turn, demands more credit and debt. This is because the economy initially requires intense borrowing in order to push the housing costs. In effect, heavy borrowing translated capital profits into cash. When this is joined with the current smallest or existing nil actual disposable revenue growth, the outcome is somewhat similar to a credit Moloch consuming credit and which bestowed less and less growth for the economy (Richebacher, 2006). Harmful Trade Deficit Another reason why the American economy is in recession is the reality about trade deficit. This is because trade deficit fundamentally changed the structure of the U. S. economy in a negative manner. This condition was manifested in the failure of manufacturing industry which is a financial area that depicts the highest level of capital pattern hence could have also been the source of the highest level of growth in production. Hence, Richebacher imparted that the most significant issue to realize here is that the accrued surpluses in spending and debt in the American economy and its fiscal method for the past decade are the overall extent which surpassed the possibility of debt service from existing income (Richebacher, 2006). Inactive Debt Trap Richebacher said that in an economy with a dormant actual disposable income and which is coupled by a double-digit increase in debt; it is the end users who are led into a cruel debt trap. There is an accepted perspective that households financially prepare both to withstand any economy-related problems and still carry on with an increased spending (Richebacher, 2006). However, Richebacher viewed that the most significant to consider the reality that people collect debts at a rate which obviously goes beyond their capacities of debt service when based from their existing income (Richebacher, 2006). Hence, the recession in the American economy is attributed with this fact that many have not resolved debt services and other debt-related concerns thereby injuring more and adding to the existing elements of economic recession. Crashing of Housing Cost Since the debt trap was not resolved or even addressed, the situation resulted into crashing of housing price. Richebacher presented three important features of this recession ground which included a situation wherein a busted house price definitely portrayed a lower instability of housing costs as well as the lower fluidity in housing markets. Next is that the crashing of housing cost exists for the past years and which is longer than the period when equity price was busted. Most importantly, the link between growth and breakage of the economy was, in fact, even more robust and solid in the housing category than equity costs (Richebacher, 2006). Ignored recession risk warning Apart from the concrete reasons given by Richebacher on why the American economy is now on recession, it is equally worthy to note that the said financial dilemma is also caused by the apparent neglect made by the country to an earlier warning. Judging from the previous years’ economic condition of the economy and the inevitable possibility of another round of recession, former U. S. Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan already made a warning, even months before the financial crisis eventually materialized, that the country’s economy is likely heading into recession (cited in â€Å"Greenspan warns of U. S. recession risk,† 2007). Greenspan based his warning from the fact that the American economy has been developing at the start of 2000 and that there has been notable indications that the existing economic phase will eventually come to its end. He noted that when the economy reached the said cycle, there is the tendency that unwavering components will eventually enhance for a recession to happen again. Greenspan particularly cited as an example the stabilization of profit margins which is taken as a warning that the economy is in the ending phased of the development cycle hence recession is impending (cited in â€Å"Greenspan warns of U. S. recession risk,† 2007). Despite the warning made by a person who is in authority concerning the financial system, however, the country apparently ignored the caution made by Greenspan. In fact, he presented specific details which proved an imminent round of recession. Regardless of the Greenspan warning, the nation opted to regard the situation which provided more comfort and continued to relish a temporary economic growth. In doing so, it was unfortunate that the country is now again faced with a damaging financial crisis which effects could have been averted if only the warning was taken into consideration. Conclusion While it appeared to be inevitable for the country to suffer economic recession, its damaging implications could have been managed in a manner that the country and its people will emerge triumphant over a specific financial crisis. This condition can be made possible if only the grounds which caused the current downturn are effectively analyzed with an aim to draw out solutions. Nonetheless, this period is better to be taken as lesson to be learned. How to cite Reasons Why the American Economy is in Recession, Papers